Chinese Tropes In The Late 18th Till Early 19th-Century British Satirical Prints

“Satirical”, according to the dictionary, means a way of criticising someone by utilising humour to expose their flaws or weaknesses, usually used to make a political argument. Almost since the creation of Visual Satire, prints propagating political satire have had a long legacy in Britain, extending back to the political and social transformations of the Enlightenment. This was from John Wilke's popular radicalism in the 1760s through the catastrophe of the French Revolution and Napoleonic Wars where British Imperialism was rising.[1] As part of event journalism, propaganda, and political criticism, contemporaries illustrate or imagined dramatic narratives from life events using exaggerated compositions, gestures, and facial expressions to make characters and the world they depicted speak loudly on their own in the prints. During the Georgian era, such visuals became entertainment for the audience, “a curiosity to the modern eyes”.[2] As print shops could be located across the metropolis in areas close to London's business and social activity, the shops had turned into a space for them to not only see and purchase things but also to study and discuss the events with each other.[3]

Themes of satirical prints vary, from the war and events the British Empire encountered in other countries, to the aboriginal people, and black slaves were common. However, among them, there are a few depictions of Chinese tropes that are visually witty but complex. Ever since the medieval time, China had always been a land far from the East, that was so fantasized by European countries. People would imagine what China would look like after reading The Travels of Marco Polo where Polo mentioned the palace walls decorated in gold and silver and merchants from all over the world came in search of prosperous commerce,[4] and centuries later, purchasing exotic items such as the Chinese pottery, wallpaper during the popularization of Chinoiserie, an artistic trend in the 18th century as a result of increased trade with China, peaked in Britain between 1750 and 1765.[5] Trading played a crucial role in exchange for exoticism, which offered an escape into fantasy from reality. It was also during the Enlightenment that scholars used the East, specifically China, "as a mirror to hold up Western values and criticize them." Asians were viewed as 'savages' or 'infields' by Europeans. Similarly, Europeans were frequently viewed as 'inferior' and 'barbarians' in Asian minds.[6]

According to some scholars, the Macartney expedition was a major turning point in British-Chinese relations. It prompted a burst of interest among London publishers in studies of China's history and geography. This inspired satires such as drinking songs, cartoons, poems describing Macartney's reception in Beijing, and epistles to the British country written in the voice of the Qianlong emperor.[7] In this essay, I will examine what role did Chinese tropes play in the late 18th to early 19th-century British satirical prints, especially in a court setting. With that, I will also study how China or Chinese exotic were represented by the mind of Britain society, understanding how caricaturists used Chinese tropes and inspiration from trading events when creating their satirical prints. Chinoiserie was believed to be loved by all however these prints may reflect the criticism towards British people for their fantasizing about their equal needs with China. Caricaturists or contemporaries at that time were mocking the attitude of both Chinese and Britain in relation to their ego, and greed for lavish items. Chinese tropes Satirical prints also reflected some disapproval of the Chinoiserie style and criticize the government for spending a lot on exotic lavish items. Characters in the prints seem to be depicted in a “barbaric” manner related to their superiority, lavish, materialistic lifestyle.

Direct Chinese contacts with the British have a relatively brief history. In fact, British traders had long viewed China as a possible enormous market for commodities, dating back to 1553 when King Edward VI tried to open up the wool trade to a new market with China.[8] The Canton System, which developed gradually through a succession of imperial inscriptions in the 17th and 18th centuries, governed foreign marine trading in China. The Cohong, a guild of thirteen trading businesses appointed by the imperial government, regulated official trading via this system. The Yongzheng Emperor entrusted the Cohong with legal authority over Guangzhou's trade in 1725. Guangzhou, then recognized as Canton to British traders, became the most important port in the China trade by the 18th century. However, in 1757, the Qianlong Emperor restricted all foreign marine trade to Guangzhou, fearing that uncontrolled foreign access would lead to social upheavals in China.[9] The Canton System made British traders feel unfair and limited, therefore they organized for an embassy to meet before the Emperor and propose changes to their current settings.

What made the Macartney mission most widely discussed as compared to others was because of the details of the mission that were published. The embassy was featured in the press, in private diaries and letters, and travel records by high and low-ranking embassy personnel.[10] Other than that, detailed information and observations of China obtained from this travel helped to provide Britain with knowledge of the foreign land that they kept imagining. Early 19th-century designers at the Wedgwood manufacture and Frederick Crace in the Music Room of the Royal Pavilion at Brighton, a palace which I shall explore later in this essay, also incorporated such visuals, particularly the watercolours painted by William Alexander.[11]

Figure 1. James Gillray, The reception of the diplomatique & his suite, at the court of Pekin, September 14, 1792. Hand-colored etching, 3.17 × 3.98cm (The British Museum, London).

Before Macartney had left on September 14, 1792, James Gillray, a British caricaturist, and printer, created one of the most famous Macartney missions in satirical prints “The Reception of the Diplomatique & his Suite at the Court of Pekin” (Figure 1) for the London print market. It was his prediction of the event and how he believed that this mission would be similar to most of the previous diplomatic missions between Europe and China, unsuccessful. The composition of the prints looks divided by the group of people. On the left side of the print is the Chinese, the Emperor of China, Emperor Qianlong, is reclining on a red mattress and smoking a pipe as Lord Macartney and his entourage arrived. Emperor Qianlong is accompanied by other Chinese officers and servants. Except for the servants, the Chinese were shown with pointed beards and moustaches, but all of them have long claw-like fingernails. On the right side of the print, Macartney introduced a variety of gifts laid at the Emperor's feet while kneeling in profile to the left. His hand holds a paper which is most probably a list of requests that Britain would like to negotiate with China. Five members of the Macartney suite are performing a kowtow behind him, with their bodies bowed forward, kneeling, and heads on the floor. Others trailed behind, carrying gifts as though eager to attract the attention of Emperor Qianlong to agree with their term.

Interestingly, Gillray knew that the Emperor would not agree to the requests made by Britain even with the lavish gifts presented to him. Douglas Fordham mentioned Gillray's satire may have been inspired by articles about gifts preparation for the Macartney journey published in London papers.[12] Not only Gillray, but other contemporaries at that time were also using other satirical ways to mock the Macartney mission. Laurence Williams argues that “the idea of a countervailing "Chinese" perspective on the embassy” is sometimes literalized in the emperor Qianlong's sceptical look aimed at his British visitors. Poets and writers have expressed doubt about the embassy's stated economic purpose, portraying China as an unprofitable land of luxury artefacts.[13] Not only that, James Hevia argues that England's enthusiastic appreciation of China was accompanied by a rising rejection of Chinese influence in the arts and moral philosophy. One of the reasons was that Chinoiserie was largely favoured by the wealthy and women. It was thought to be the root of political corruption and influence-peddling in the British Parliament at the time.[14]

In the print, Fordham suggested symbols and iconographies in Gillray’s print which indicated the caricaturist's thoughts. Gillray made this jumble of gifts look like a child's play, further by including Boydell's Shakespearean prints at the emperors' feet. These may represent greed on the part of the merchant. Gillray also referred to the magical lantern at Macartney's feet. Devils appear on either side of the magic lantern strip but only appear as Punch images in the middle viewer and King George's image below.[15] This expedition cost £78,0002 and included a number of presents designed to represent British scientific and artistic accomplishments.

Fordham also further suggests other iconographies that showed how Gillray predicted the mission would be a failure with Macartney's lips forming a thread leading to a hot-air balloon, a joke on hot air ready to be blown into a speech bubble. His speech is done for him by the balloon, which receives a stiff poke in the eye from the Chinese dragon, just as the heraldic English lion does,[16] this may be indicating that whatever Macartney said will not work on Emperor Qianlong and that he may, in return received disappointment from the Emperor.

From observation, although Gillray was mocking Britain, the Chinese looked more ‘barbaric’ and obese as compared to the British gentlemen. In their expression and features, the Chinese with their pointy sharp eyes looked scepticism and despise towards Macartney and the men behind. Macartney also looked less ‘caricatured’, more realistic as compared to the Chinese and British men behind him, like a sense of respect was placed on Macartney as a good etiquette gentleman. When comparing the posture of both Emperor Qianlong and Macartney, the way the Emperor placed his hand and leaned backward already suggested that he was showing no respect to the Britain embassy, as though he never learned any proper etiquette or morality while Macartney bowed with sincere to respect the Emperor like what a cultured man does. The British people behind Macartney however, were depicted as greedy individuals, using all the lavish items they had to lure the Emperor into their traps.

Figure 2. William Alexander, The Reception, Watercolour on Paper (British Library, London).

This watercolor (Figure 2) by artist William Alexander, official draughtsman to the Embassy, depicted the occasion of the first embassy to China, Lord Macartney being greeted by Qing Emperor Qianlong. The painting is filled with details, but Alexander was not there when the event took place.[17] In his portrayal of the event, he relies on verbal accounts and sketches produced by core delegation members. Among the courtiers is Macartney, who genuflects before Qianlong while he is sitting on his throne. The twelve British men who stand behind Macartney have a number that corresponds to a list of names on the top right corner. Similar to James Gillray’s print, Macartney was depicted doing a genuflect as if he were bowing to his ruler, George III. The emperor was seated properly on his throne to receive the bow from Macartney, looking at the gift that Macartney presented with respect instead of rude as depicted in Gillray’s print. The emperor was also not as obese as it seems.

With that, caricaturists were joking about how British men were fooling themselves and hoping to see eye to eye with China. They found it unacceptable for the government to feel jealous and went beyond, even if it was to lose their superiority, to negotiate with the ‘barbaric stranger’ of the far East. Unlike other countries where native people had adapted to European customs, clothes, attitudes, and habits, George Staunton, a member of the Royal Society and Doctor of Law from Oxford, said that the Chinese had not progressed at all despite one hundred years of involvement with British commerce.[18]

Of course, using lavish goods/gifts as luring tactics by the British didn’t work and Emperor Qianlong rejected the requests. In his letter to King George III, the Qianlong emperor stated that China has everything in plenty and needs no product inside its boundaries. As a result, there is no need to import "barbarian-made" goods in exchange for their own product. By the spring of 1794, satires speculating on what may happen in China were being followed by first-hand reports from Macartney's mission in Canton, which were sent back to London and published in the press. At first, these satires were government propaganda, The ambassadors were welcomed with the greatest marks of honor and respect, according to the press. [19] But in reality, it wasn't so smooth due to the issue with gifts and kowtow, which displeased Qianlong much.[20] However, throughout the summer of that year, a number of more harsh and accurate stories surfaced, some from Canton merchants and others from diplomatic sources.[21]

Figure 3. Published by: Laurie & Whittle, The Chinese dinner. A fact, which occurred during Lord Macartney's embassy to China. By Old Nick, 1805. Hand-colored etching, 1.78× 2.48cm (The British Museum, London).

Soon, caricaturists continued to depict British people as fooling themselves and Macartney being the leader of the expedition, was the victim of being ridiculed in satirical. The print “The Chinese dinner. A fact, which occurred during Lord Macartney's embassy to China. By Old Nick” (Figure 3) published by the Laurie & Whittle, illustrates Macartney with a fat British man with a moustache like how a Chinese would and wore a Chinese pointed hat. His hand with long claw-like fingernails and he smoked like how James Gillray depicted in his print. A slightly obese British man depicted in a pink dress seems strange, this may be related that chinoiserie was largely favoured by the wealthy women. According to Hevia, the reason why the Chinese were shown in a comedic way was that Chinoiseries was attractive to women and was perceived as a source of governmental corruption. Women were also seen to be incapable of aesthetic judgement.[22]

The Royal Pavilion was built in the late 18th century by George IV, who, burdened by debts and determined to live a modest life, moved to Brighton and commissioned Henry Holland to construct the Pavilion when his debts were settled. Because of his style and demeanor, George was dubbed the "First Gentleman of England." He was brilliant, intelligent, and educated, but his laziness caused him to waste a lot of his potential. He will always choose "a girl and a bottle to politics and a sermon," according to the Times.[23] Alexandra Loske argues that George IV’s exotic taste was influenced by the aesthetic and collecting habits of his parent, as well as the unusually strong feminine influence he was exposed to in his family, especially his mother, Queen Charlotte, and his sister, Charlotte (The Princess Royal).[24] The man in a pink dress may be a criticism of a man who loves Chinese lavish items have a taste like a woman.

The print is in a Chinese imperial dinner setting, Lord Macartney was served with a head of a dog as a delicacy. A poem below the image tells how, after many courses of delicacies he couldn't identify, he was glad to see what he thought was a duck, but when he pointed to it and said "Quack, Quack?" the Chinese answered, "Bow, wow, wow!". A joke of Macartney believing in knowing what he does best (preparing gifts that he thought could be able to come to terms with the Chinese) but in fact, not truly understanding the Chinese and ended up being teased by them instead.

Figure 4. George Cruikshank, The court at Brighton à la Chinese!!, 1816. Hand-colored etching, 2.73 × 3.72 cm (The British Museum, London).

As the decade passed by, the story of Macartney's mission soon drifted away from the mind of the British people. The focus soon shifted towards British Royal instead, King George IV (then the Regent) himself. This ‘barbaric’ superior character was soon used to depict the Regent in his fancy palace and his exotic, lavish lifestyle. Here, in George Cruikshank’s “The court at Brighton à la Chinese!!” (Figure 4), the overall theme and setting were a little similar to James Gillray's “The Reception of the Diplomatique & his Suite at the Court of Pekin” (Figure 1). Viewers may have mistaken this print being in an actual Chinese court setting at one glance due to the elements of Chinese scattered around. However, when looked closely, this print was much more complex than the others as there were small details in every corner including text that is partly making fun of the Court of the British Royal family.

Instead of Emperor Qianlong, the Regent is represented in a body exaggerated, enormously obese, sitting on a couch, smoking an oriental pipe in the middle. the Regent was pictured or covered with Chinese representation. He’s holding out a paper to Lord Amherst (right), who bows to accept it. Similarly, in how the Chinese were depicted, both are dressed in Chinese clothing, with fingernails that have been lengthened into talons, and wear circular Chinese hats. the Regent’s moustache is extremely long and drooping, whereas Amherst's and another two men on the right were rather short. His thick leg is embroidered with a pagoda, and his feet are shod in exquisite Chinese shoes. His pointy eyes similar to Gillray’s print, narrowed his eyes toward Amherst with despise and I would say “wickedly”.

The year 1815 was when Holland’s Pavilion commenced and also the time when his father fell ill and the Prince became Regent. The following year, in 1816, William Amherst, 1st Earl Amherst, was sent as an extraordinary ambassador to China's Qing dynasty with the purpose of increasing trade connections between the two nations. He only knew when he arrived at Pei Ho (today's Haihe) that he could only be permitted to the Jiaqing Emperor's court if he performed the kowtow. Following the opinion of Sir George Thomas Staunton, who followed him as the second commissioner, Amherst refused to accept until his majesty was entitled to the same demonstration of respect from a mandarin of his position, as Macartney had done in 1793.[25] When the emperor discovered the diplomatic nature of the avoidance, he dismissed the embassy without giving it an imperial audience and refused the embassy 'tribute' of presents.[26] With that, the outcome was worst than Macartney's, being regarded as a failure.

Others in the prints were also depicted in a way that was humiliating as some were dressing in Chinese costumes or represented in a greedy manner for the exotic life. Lady Hertford in an exaggerated body takes a seat on a cushion on the Regent's right side of the divan, her elbow resting on his shoulder, while she turns to Lord Hertford on her left. Princess Charlotte wanting a China man stands by the Regent's left, her hand on his left arm. Prince Leopold stands close behind and stares down at her. Queen Charlotte, the most heavily caricatured in the print, smirked enthusiastically in the left foreground while dumping money into a bag shaped like a large stocking. Queen Charlotte had various rooms at Windsor Castle and Buckingham House constructed in a Chinoiseries style or decorated with Chinoiseries motifs, in addition to collecting oriental goods.[27] Two men on the left wearing judge wigs were wearing Chinese hats, and on the right are two Chinese men, face drooping Chinese with moustaches, wearing round hats too but with center peak, and long robes, each with a ribbon and star that are only seen on British nobles.

Behind the background, it is believed to be the setting of the Royal Pavillion. A massive bronze dragon hangs from the roof, one claw supporting a pagoda-shaped lamp. Narrow strips of Chinese ornamentation split the wall into panels. Curtains shade an alcove behind the royal divan, surrounded by two standing "sculptures". One of which is a life-like image of Saartjie Baartman in profile to the left, captioned 'Regency Taste!!!!!' Another figure of the King, this time in profile to the right, criticized the Regent for having similar taste as the aboriginal people, where they were often depicted as ‘savage’ or barbaric individuals in other satirical print such as Cruikshank’s “All among the Hottentots capering to shore 1820”

Figure 5. Robert Seymour, The great Joss and his playthings, 1829. Hand-colored etching, 2.53 × 3.51cm (The British Museum, London).

Robert Seymour’s “The great Joss and his playthings” is another example of a depiction of the King’s fascination and obsession with his exotic and Chinoiserie “play toys”. Here, the King towards the end of his reign was shown in a similar fat obese character again, his fingernails were depicted as claw-like long fingernails. The ‘barbaric expression’ on his face, the way he smirked as though enjoying watching his servants serving below him. In a Chinese costume, George IV sits on a giant teapot, smoking, and holding a giraffe by the neck as he grips it. As he smokes a pipe shaped like a with the words 'Oh 'tis love 'tis love 'tis love' erupts from his lips. At the bottom is an alcohol bottle that could be seen. George's heavy drinking and lavish lifestyle had taken a toll on his health by the late 1820s. While still Prince of Wales, William had become obese as a result of his huge feasts and excessive wine consumption, making him a target of mockery on the odd occasions that he went in public.[28]

Above his head which was supposed to be a dragon (compare Figure 4) was transformed into a kind of fierce and terrifying snake. There are four figures that are smaller in size, also costumed in Chinese style, and are constructing toys for the king, while one of them is holding a plank of Life Guards led by a rooster towards the king. Behind the king is the Brighton Palace. The King's desire for exotic pleasures and his fixation with building and renovating royal mansions at considerable expense are mocked in this satire, a questionable taste for his Chinese or exotic items.

The giraffe in the print was immediately recognized as one of King George’s expensive hobbies. She was a gift from Egypt's viceroy Mohammed Ali in 1827. Giraffes were the rarest and unique of wild creatures at the time. On August 11, 1827, she arrived at London's Waterloo Bridge, where George had been anticipating his new toy. He added the giraffe to his collection, which must have sparked his curiosity given his fascination with all things exotic. However, the giraffe died in 1829 as a result of serious injuries received during the long voyage from Africa to Windsor, or as a result of improper nutrition.[29] Several more prints related to the giraffe, in William Heath print, showed Lady Conyngham and George hoisting the giraffe, John Doyle’s crying for their ‘new toy’, and even packing the skeleton of the giraffe, another print illustrated by William Heath. They depicted them as individuals without any proper education or manner to express their displease on how the King spent a fortune on exotic items, items that were not even local.

Figure 6. J J Grandville, Commerce Anglais Series: Series: La Caricature, 1840. lithograph, 2.42× 1.88cm (The British Museum, London).

It was until the First Opium War, the battle between Qing China and the United Kingdom from 1839 to 1842, was prompted by the dynasty's fight against British opium traffickers in China. The Treaty of Nanking (Nanjing), the first of the Unequal Treaties between China and Western powers, ended the war with China's defeat. Although created by a French caricaturist, J J Grandville, “Commerce Anglais Series: Series: La Caricature” which means the English Trade Series: The Caricature, pictured the British in power while the Chinese Emperor had no choice but to obey the British troops. The sign of superiority was obviously on the British side, their figure standing tall while the Chinese emperor in his small slightly obese body. It was during this period that the theme of lavish Chinoiseries had come to an end, falling together with China. Soon, it was a shift in taste and the improvement of public morals with the expansion of Evangelicalism, causing the loss of independent and satirical print in the nineteenth century.[30]

Most Chinese tropes in British satirical prints during the late 18th till early 19th century politically reflected the dismay of caricaturists and society towards the British Royal and government related to trading and their obsession with Chinese goods. They may find them ridiculous for spending money trying to conduct a mission and buying lavish gifts as tributes to negotiate with barbaric strangers of the far East. Even if the mission had failed, the British government was not only rejected by the Qianlong Empire but also ridiculed by the people of Britain. When the time came for the Regent to take over the throne, his obsession with exotic goods and lavish lifestyle were being criticized by the people for fantasizing about himself in an ‘unreal world’, questioning whether the money spent was worth it. It was interesting to see British caricaturists using the elements of ‘barbaric’ that they previously used on the Chinese to depict the British royals.

Not everyone will like the trend that was going on, even Chinoiserie style that almost took over entire Europe. For some British people, Chinoiserie is an artistic movement that destroyed the European aesthetic and artistic values. Satirical prints reflected Britain, a powerhouse of the Western world seeing China as the powerhouse of the Eastern World, an equal match. Both countries were ego and didn’t come to equal terms, especially during the Macartney’s mission which caused continuous satirical works by contemporaries at that time. It is the fantasy of the land far East, an obsession with materialistic and lavish lifestyles that showed the true faces of a person, be it a foolish ambassador, an ego emperor, or a greedy king.

Footnotes: [1] Diana Donald, The Age of Caricature: Satirical Prints in the Reign of George III (London: Yale University Press, 1996), P. 1 [2] Herbert M. Atherton, Political Prints In The Age of Hogarth: A Study of The Ideographic Representation of Politics (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1974), P. 1 [3] Jocelyn Anderson, Views of Political Geography in the Seven Years’ War: Military Artists’ Prints and British Consumers. Oxford Art Journal, 41(1)), P. 23 [4] Marco Polo, The Travels, translated by Ronald Latham (London: Penguin, 1958) P. 162-166 [5] David Beevers, Chinese Whispers: Chinoiserie in Britain, 1650–1930 (Brighton: Brighton & Hove City Council, 2009), P. 19 [6] Jackson, A. and Amin Jaffer, Encounters: The Meeting of Asia and Europe 1500-1800 (London: V & A Publications, 2004), P. 9 [7] Laurence Williams, British Government under the Qianlong Emperor’s Gaze: Satire, Imperialism, and the Macartney Embassy to China, 1792–1804. Lumen: Selected Proceedings from the Canadian Society for Eighteenth-Century Studies, 32, (2013) P. 87 [8] Chinasage (n.d.). Early British contacts with China to 1700. Available at: https://www.chinasage.info/early-british-contacts.htm. (Accessed: 14th April 2022). [9] William T. Rowe, China's Last Empire: The Great Qing. History of Imperial China. Vol. 6. (2010) P. 141-144 [10] Williams, British under the Qianlong Emperor’s Gaze, P. 87 [11] Megan Brewster Aldrich and Pavilion, R, The Craces : Royal decorators 1768-1899 (Brighton: J. Murray, 1990), P. 212 [12] Todd Porterfield, The Efflorescence of Caricature, 1759–1838 (Surrey: Ashgate, 2010), P. 63 [13] Williams, British under the Qianlong Emperor’s Gaze, P. 89 - 93 [14] James Louis Hevia, Cherishing Men From Afar: Qing Guest Ritual and the Macartney Embassy of 1793 (London: Duke University Press, 2005), P. 71 [15] Porterfield, Efflorescence of Caricature, P. 63-64 [16] Porterfield, Efflorescence of Caricature, P. 66 [17] British Library. (n.d.). Emperor of China Receiving the Macartney Embassy [online] Available at: https://www.bl.uk/collection-items/the-emperor-of-china-receiving-the-macartney-embassy. (Accessed on 10th April 2022) [18] George Sataunton, An Authentic Account of An Embassy from the King of Great Britain to the Emperor of China, 3 vols. (London: G.Nichol, 1797), P. 16 [19] The Oracle and Public Advertiser, 28 May 1794. [20] Alain Peyrefitte, The Collision of Two Civilisations: The British Expedition to China in 1792-4 (London: Harvill, 1993), P. 198 [21] Williams, British under the Qianlong Emperor’s Gaze, P. 97 [22] Hevia, Cherishing Men From Afar, P. 71 [23] John Clarke, "George IV". The Lives of the Kings and Queens of England (New York, Alfred A. Knopf, 1975) P.225 [24] Peng Lü, 文明的维度国际学术研讨会论文集 / Wen ming de wei du guo ji xue shu yan tao hui lun wen ji (Beijing: 中国青年出版社Zhong guo Qing Nian Chu Ban She, 2014), P. 324-327 [25] Peyrefitte, Collision of Two Civilisations, P.509 - 511 [26] Peter J. Kitson, The ‘Catastrophe of This New Chinese Mission’ The Amherst Embassy to China of 1816 (London: Taylor And Francis, 2017) P.1 [27] Lü, Wen ming de wei, P. 328 [28] Steven Parissien, George IV: The Grand Entertainment (London: John Murray, 2002) P.355 [29] Alexandra Loske (12 April 2011). Everybody Loves a Giraffe, Especially our George. Available at: https://brightonmuseums.org.uk/discover/2011/04/12/everybody-loves-a-giraffe-especially-our-george/. (Accessed on 10th April 2022) [30] Atherton, Political Prints In The Age of Hogarth, P. 2