The Blue and White in The Late 15th Century European Paintings

The interpretation of the Blue and White Porcelain is constantly linked to global networks and porcelain trading. Khubilai Khan began the period of Mongol rule when the Southern Song surrendered in 1276. He then established his imperial kiln at Jingdezhen in 1278, where one of China's most highly prized works began to be manufactured, the blue and white porcelain (known in Chinese 青花瓷器 qīng huā cí qì). Blue and white porcelain, such as the Yuan (1260 - 1368) and Ming (1260 - 1368) were exported and replicated throughout the Islamic world,[1] which soon slowly made their way into European countries. That was the beginning where many would be astonished by the porcelain's thinness, white gleaming translucent appearance, and wonder what this mysterious substance is. In the thirteenth and early fourteenth centuries, merchants together with artisans of China and the Middle East collaborated in a unique way, bringing the ceramic cultures and the relation of the two nations closer than ever before.[2] With the mix of Chinese porcelain-making techniques and Islamic trade, the importation of cobalt oxide from Persia, known as 'Muslim/Islamic blue' (回回青huí hui qīng) and sumali qing (from the Arabic samawi, "sky-coloured"), were used along with the translucent white quality of Chinese porcelain obtained from kaolin (高嶺 Gāo lǐng), allowing for the birth of the blue and white porcelain. In exchange, custom blue and white porcelain were mass-produced in Jingdezhen and shipped to Islamic markets. [3]

To find the reason why blue and white porcelain was rarely depicted in European paintings of the late 15th Century and why were they only portrayed in paintings consisting of the Gods, my focus in this essay is not only the studies of Chinese porcelain in relation to diplomacy, cross-cultural interactions that occurred in the royal courts of Italy but also analysing it as a symbol that reflects the privilege and lavish lifestyle of the Italian royal courts. By examining two paintings, the Adoration of the Magi (Fig. 1) painted around 1495–1505 by Andrea Mantegna, and The Feast of the Gods (Fig. 4) painted in 1514 by Giovanni Bellini, we can better understand why blue and white porcelain was uncommon to be depicted in European Paintings and if they do, they were only pictured in paintings surrounded by the Gods. I'll also be viewing the representations of China and Chinese porcelain that were portrayed in Europe by analysing early writings of European travellers such as Marco Polo and John Mandeville, which contain texts that described the land "Cathay", which is China. The glory of this land that was narrated in texts may have slowly given attraction for Europeans to obtain any objects that were produced from China. There will also be studies on the members of the Este family, such as Duchess Eleonora d'Aragona of Ferrara, Isabella d'Este, and Alfonso I d'Este, Duke of Ferrara, focusing on their private collection that may contain the blue and white porcelain that was acquired through the diplomacy with Eastern Islamic. This reveals that only the privileged can be able to obtain Chinese porcelain, only then the artists were able to use them as models for their paintings that were assumed to have been commissioned by the Este Family to exhibit their power and wealthy lifestyle.

Firstly, how do Europeans come to know about the Land of China which fascinated them? How does this mysterious place of Cathay create such magical translucent material of the blue and white porcelain? In the writings of travellers to China, their sometimes inaccurate and imaginative explanation of China may have intrigued the people of Europe. Marco Polo's and Sir John Mandeville's writings of their travel were the major sources of European knowledge about China during the Middle Age period. Marco Polo, a Venetian merchant, adventurer, and writer, learned the mercantile trade from his father and uncle, Niccol and Maffeo, who travelled through Asia and met Kublai Khan, the fifth khagan-emperor of the Mongol Empire and the founder of the Yuan dynasty of China in 1271, and decided to travel through Asia with them along the Silk Road between 1271 and 1295.[4]

Marco Polo's travels are documented in his book The Travels of Marco Polo, written in the late thirteenth century. About four to five chapters were dedicated to his travels in China, his writings revealed the wealth and immensity of the Mongol Empire, including China's hidden civilization and inner workings during the Yuan Dynasty to Europeans. Marco Polo described the Great Khan's accomplishments when reigning his countries, giving examples such as people dressed in gold fabric, and a kingdom affluent with Orient gold, silver, and precious stones. When he detailed his palace, for instance, the walls of the hallways and chambers are all decorated in gold and silver and filled with paintings of dragons, birds, and horsemen, as well as numerous kinds of monsters and war scenes.[5] Although some of the interpretations of China may have sounded almost like make-believe or over fantasized, it was ample to elevate the impression of China among readers and to seek this prosperous land through trading. Marco talked about merchants from all over the world, including Lombard, Germans, and French, who stayed in hostels. Merchants and others who travelled were not only for business but also several reasons, some including that because China was Khan's home, others were an opportunity for lucrative trade, and chances to stay in splendid residences and mansions even if they were located on the outskirts of the city.[6]

Marco Polo came back to his family in Venice after spending 24 years as an advisor to Kublai Khan in the fabled country of China, where he learned the mysteries of the Orient. His saddlebags revealed hidden treasure, among them were gold, jewels, and jade and a peculiar white translucent incense burner.[7] The Travels of Marco Polo also comprised one of the oldest European descriptions of Chinese porcelain, “…they make bowls of porcelain, large and small, of incomparable beauty... These dishes are made of a crumbly earth of clay which is dug as though from a mine and stacked in huge mounds and then left for thirty or forty years exposed to wind, rain, and sun. By this time the earth is so refined that dishes made of it are an azure tint with a very brilliant sheen.”[8]

Chinese porcelain was so rare and exquisite when it was first seen in the West that it eventually became more valuable than gold because Europeans had no knowledge of how porcelain was created in the first place. It was to become a centuries-long puzzle that would perplex and captivate the western world. Craftsmen from the Middle East were also trying to find ways to imitate the porcelain because of its’ high demand. The application of a white body fluid over the earthenware clay of a fired ceramic piece to replicate the pure whiteness of Chinese porcelain was a technological development in Islamic ceramics. Then, in the 11th century, stonepaste or fritware, a clay that closely resembled Chinese porcelain in appearance and texture, was invented. Chinese themes such as dragons, lotuses, and birds were copied and adapted with more typical Islamic designs over time.[9]

Another book that described the great land of China was The Travels of Sir John Mandeville. The success of Mandeville's book derived from European desires to learn more about China and faraway places. Mandeville's Travels was first published in the mid-1300s and had been adapted into most European languages by the year 1400,[10] which gave rise to its’ popularity. It was not surprising that many would hope to visit the great Cathay while reading his words “…within the palace, in the hall, there be twenty-four pillars of fine gold. And all the walls be covered within of red skins of beasts that men clepe panthers…” or the “great solemn feasts before the emperor's table men bring great tables of gold”[11]. The country's prosperity and dominance were very much emphasized by his interpretation of the natural landscape, citizens, culture, and innovations of Cathay. Some may wish to travel to China when Mandeville mentioned about merchants. He added that Cathay is a magnificent nation full of merchants from different places, including Venice, to look for spices and other merchandise.[12] Regardless of the fact that the texts are sometimes falsified and imaginative, Europeans were determined to travel to China, even travellers like Christopher Columbus, who was influenced by both Mandeville's book and Marco Polo's earlier Travels, used them as references.[13]

The Mongol empire started to collapse after the death of Kublai Khan, and Hongwu became the first emperor of the Ming dynasty in 1368. Trade between east and west continued through the renowned silk road, however Ming rulers became increasingly inward-looking toward foreigners, which eventually ordered the overland trade routes to be stopped. Chinese citizens were likewise prohibited from travelling by sea, and trade was restricted to the tributary mission.[14] Therefore, the only way for Europeans of the Middle Ages until the early Renaissance to learn about China was from the books that contained the narration of China, texts that highlighted the country's prosperity. Unknown to Europeans on the true process and material of the blue and white porcelain, they would presume that only “God” like the great Emperor Khan in his power could create these bowls as white as heaven. Treating Chinese Porcelain as possession of divinity, it was only painted with the Gods, for example, presenting it to the Child Christ in the Adoration of the Magi or using it to hold the food of the Gods in The Feast of the Gods. But why were blue and white porcelain rarely portrayed in European paintings, and most likely, these two paintings by Mantegna and Bellini were the only well-known European paintings that have depicted the porcelains until the late 16th century when Chinoiserie entered European art and decoration. One of the reasons assume was that this porcelain may only be seen in the upper-class or royal courts of Italy, by those who managed to own some of them.

Figure 1. Andrea Mantegna, Adoration of the Magi, Distemper on linen, 48.6 × 65.6 cm, 1495–1505 (J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles).

In The Adoration of the Magi (Fig. 1) by Andrea Mantegna, according to Matthew's Gospel, "Magi from the East" paid homage to the new-born Christ with gifts of gold, frankincense, and myrrh. Caspar, Melchior, and Balthazar were given names by writers, and they were said to be from Europe, Asia, and Africa, the three then-known continents of the globe.[15] The three Kings each offer their respects to the Christ Child with a gift, who then responds with a blessing sign. Casper, the eastern king, bends before the Christ child and gently presents one of the gifts, a porcelain cup filled with gold coins. The porcelain cup was placed in the middle and was the closest to us, somehow giving an indication that it was purposefully positioned to attract the eyes towards the blue and white cup with the gold coins inside. This can be referenced to a feast in 1492 at the Medici court that had documented the usage of such vessels to show coins, including Lorenzo's coins and medals displayed in a big damascene vase.[16]

Figure 2. Andrea Mantegna, Adoration of the Magi [Detail]

Figure 3. Blue-and-white Cup with Floral Design in the Bottom, Yongle reign (1403-1424), Ming dynasty (1368-1644), undated, interior, and exterior have blue-and-white glaze designs of plum blossoms at mouth and patterns of interlocking lotus on the stomach. (The Palace Museum, Beijing)

With the illustration of individuals who may come from Europe, Asia, and Africa, the whole painting can also suggest diplomacy between the West and the East that was going on at that time. It was through trading and gift-giving, Andrea Mantegna must have witnessed such scenes. The Chinese Porcelain would have also been found in his patrons, Isabella D'esta's collection, Merchesa of Mantua, and presumably in her mother Eleonora d'aragona's studioli as well. Comparing the blue and white cup from the painting (Fig. 2) and a Ming dynasty cup (Fig. 3) that was made during the Yongle reign, although Mantegna’s cup was slightly slimmer from the actual Ming dynasty cup, the overall shape, form, and motifs were closely resembled. Mantegna may have been able to obtain this porcelain cup as a model when he was asked to create this work, and furthermore was probably asked to add the blue and white porcelain cup into the painting.

In Leah Clark's paper, she analysed evidence included in a 1493 inventory to prove the existence of Blue and White Porcelain in Elonora d'aragona's collection. Eleonora's blue and white porcelain is more diverse, and the compiler has included information on the ornamentation, casing, shape, and function of the porcelain: For example, one little blue and white porcelain vase is mentioned as being used for rose water.[17] Regarding on how Eleonora was able to attain these porcelains, Eleonora's father, King Ferrante of Naples, exchanged gifts with Sultan Qaytbay of Cairo during the 1480s.[18] Furthermore, the court received an embassy from the Sultan of Tunisia when Eleonora was present for her father's new wife's coronation. As the king's daughter and Duchess of Ferrara, Eleonora would have received gifts from the sultan.[19] Coincidentally, Eleonora passed away in 1493, and part of her collection may have been inherited by her daughter, Isabella D'esta. The painting was produced around 1495–1505, which was close to Elenora's year of death, and the porcelain cup may have been one of the items that were inherited by Isabella.

Therefore, if this painting was assumed to be commissioned by the Este family, the painting can be an illustration of trading and gift-giving going on between the royal courts of Italy and Islamic countries. Other items that were presented in the painting such as two hardstone vessels with metal mounts, one of which had a metal lid placed to it and the other had a metal knob attached to it. Such vessels should be common gifts as well, Piero di Cosimo de Medici's 1465 inventory mentions a gold-decorated porcelain cup, although Isabella d'Este's ones were all mounted.[20] Therefore, can the Gods who received such exquisite gifts may have represented the Este family themselves? I’m just sharing some possibilities but will not like to focus on figuring that in this essay. However, let’s move to another question, what about the Feast of The Gods that was commissioned by yet another member of the Este family, Alfonso d’Este?

Figure 4. Giovanni Bellini, The Feast of the Gods, oil on canvas, 170.2 x 188 cm, 1514 (National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.).

The attempted rape of Lotis, a nymph described by Ovid, is shown in Giovanni Bellini's mythological painting The Feast of the Gods, 1514 (Fig. 4). Priapus attempted to rape her as she was sleeping during a festival that was said to be in honour for Liber, but she was awoken by a startling cry of Silenus's donkey and fled, leaving Priapus embarrassed as everyone else were awoke and became known of his motives.[21] There is a total of three blue and white porcelains on display here, suggested being fifteenth-century porcelain. The first on the head of a bare-chested satyr, the second in the hands of the nymph standing beside him, and the third holding fruits, quinces to be specific, on the grass in front of Neptune and his woman. These mythological subject matter in Bellini's painting was perhaps proposed by the humanist Mario Equicola in October 1511 as part of a set of six bacchanalian themes designed to decorate Duke Alfonso I d'Este of Ferrara's camerino d'alabastro,[22] who commissioned this painting. Although the subject was decided by Equicola based on the literacy evidence where he used the poetic image of Bacchus as a small child and the kingfisher bird, termed in Greek as the (h)alcyon or in Latin as the Alcedo, both were prominently related with the literary subject of the winter solstice,[23] I believe the blue and white porcelain was not determined by Equicola but Alfonso himself.

Bellini was believed to be influenced by his brother-in-law Mantegna, the inspiration for painting the blue and white porcelain may have come after seeing Mantegna’s Adoration of the Maggi. During the exhibition Mantegna & Bellini at the National Gallery of London, a talk was organized and presented by one of the curators of the exhibition, Caroline Campbell, where she brought the four paintings together for a clear comparison of both artists. Mantegna and Bellini produced their own version of the Presentation at the Templeand The Agony in the Garden. On the Presentation at the Temple by Giovanni Bellini, they were able to find a tracing of Andrea Mantegna’s painting. “Anyone with eyes could see that there was a relationship between the two artists, but this was the first solid evidence of one man working directly from the other,” said Campbell. Andrea Mantegna may have created this painting to commemorate his marriage to Nicolosia and hoping for a child, while Bellini recreated it to include additional family portraits to honour his father, Jacopo's death, based on evidence of the artists painting their family members in both works. Campbell proceeded to study The Agony in the Garden, which adds on that both artists had been inspired by, drawn from, and even directly replicated each other. Although Bellini seems to condense his version compared to Mantegna's one, it seems that Bellini was using foreshadowing and detailed the facial expression of the sleeping disciplines as well just like his brother-in-law. [24]

Figure 5. Giovanni Bellini, The Feast of the Gods [Detail]

Figure 6. Porcelain bowl, Ming and Xuande (mark and period), 1426-1435, Blue underglaze with five flowers: pomegranate, lotus, tree peony, chrysanthemum, hollyhock. (The British Museum, London)

Bellini was also known to only paint things that he has seen before and refuse to paint things he doesn’t know or without a life model. Comparing The Agony in the Garden again, Bellini’s landscape was more natural, and he didn’t depict the Jerusalem ancient city that appeared in Mantegna's version because Bellini hadn’t seen any Jerusalem city in real-life before. Instead, he painted little hill towns that were much more typical in 15th and 16th century Italy.[25] With that, Bellini must have been able to get his hands on the blue and white porcelain so he could be able to portray them in the painting. Here we can compare the bowls (Fig. 5) with a Ming dynasty porcelain bowl (Fig. 6), the motifs of the flowers, the curve thin lines, and the leaves were very similar. This type of decoration may be found on Ming porcelain, which was widely exported to Persia, Syria, and Egypt. Bellini was thought to have discovered pieces of Chinese porcelain as diplomatic gifts given to Doge Barbarigo from the Mamluke Sultans in 1498, as well as in 1498 and 1508 to the Signoria.[26] Other than that, he may also be able to obtain these blue and white porcelain from Alfonso or Isabella’s collection, inherited from their mother or through their own diplomatic gifts.

The most left of the Chinese porcelain was mounted with a silver handle, mounting was a popular mode of practice in Europe, at least as early as the fourteenth century. For example, blue and white Yuan dynasty porcelain bowls that were elaborately mounted with silver-gilded and enamel were owned by Louis, Duc d'Anjou, as early as 1365; some even featured gilt knobs studded with pearls, garnets, and even serpents' tongues. The appearance of serpents' tongues also related to a belief in porcelain's apotropaic abilities, as evidenced by a work from 1402 called Libellus de notitia orbis (On Knowledge of the World), which said that it 'absorbs all the impurities, etc. of the poison and purifies it entirely.'[27] This further explains why Chinese Porcelain was depicted in the painting as the vessels for the food of the Gods, the belief on the porcelain that can purify any food that was placed in the bowls will benefit the Gods. Other than that, it was believed that the shapes of vessels were modified in the Asian context to fit new dining customs. It's possible that throughout Europe, porcelain's alleged magical qualities coexisted with beliefs in the “medicinal properties” of the spices it contained.[28]

These kinds of ideas were most likely practiced in the Este Family, they may have used these blue and white porcelains as a magical source of good health and longevity in life. Also, by the 1500s, Italian lords and nobles became tired of eating from silver plates and drinking off gold goblets. They desired something new and found food looking and tasting better on majolica, which replicated the aesthetic of Chinese porcelain, than metallic plates. The Italians also accepted the change from eating to dining, which was linked by table manners and the necessity for specific serving dishes. People didn't eat with their fingers or from communal bowls anymore and eating apparatus played a role in social status.[29]

The two paintings that may have been commissioned by the Este family depicted the Chinese Porcelain with the presence of Gods. To them, the porcelain was the most exquisite item in their collection, and they enjoyed this privilege. The blue and white porcelain was a symbol of supremacy, power, that heightens their social status among the upper class in Italy’s culture. From what we understand on the paintings Presentation at the Temple done by Mantegna and Bellini, it was common to portray themselves and their family members into a painting, even if the paintings were related to Gods. This can be reflected in The Feast of Gods where Bellini may have painted portrays of Alfonso and his family, marking the marriage of him and his wife Lucrezia. The women (maybe Gaea) seated next to Neptune in The Feast of Gods are holding a quince, which is a symbol of marriage and a prominent characteristic in Venetian marriage paintings. Alfonso d'Este married Lucrezia Borgia in 1502 and had a son, Ercole II d'Este, who was born in 1508. Further left from the women is Mercury wearing a silver helmet, with his gaze towards the couple.

Based on Edgar Wind, Mercury was believed to be Alfonso’s brother, Ippolito d’Este, who arranged this marriage. Mercury’s feature was compared with a Medal of Ippolito d’Este which does have a close resemblance. Neptune was none other than Alfonso himself, which can be compared to a Portrait painting done by Titian. Alfonso's wife Lucrezia Borgia would be the Goddess holding the quince, the symbol of matrimony. With the blond hair that was depicted and the resemblance that can be seen in her medals, it was quite convincing that the female figure was Lucrezia. The child just below the donkey, who is Bacchus, may be the young Ercole d’Este. It was because when creating this painting, Ercole might have been around the age of six.[30] Therefore, the Este family may have commissioned painters to paint classical works that reflect their lavish lifestyle and placed those paintings in their private collection to show off their visitors when they came, including the blue and white porcelain that many would wish to have. This is also a way for them to compete in social status, presenting themselves as well cultured and mannered individuals.

Things change after decades when the blue and white porcelains were mass-produced and became common in Europe that anyone who could afford them, would buy porcelains for their household. Porcelain was exported to Europe in large quantities after Vasco da Gamma's 1498's travel that re-established the sea route to the East. Because of the high demand for Chinese porcelain in Europe, Chinese potters began producing blue and white ceramics specifically for the European market, resulting that all but the poorest kings could claim a few fine pieces into their collections.[31]

The Dutch East India Company created a European market for Chinese porcelain when the need for inter-Asian trading increased in Portuguese. Between 1602 and 1604, the company, which was founded in 1602, seized two Portuguese ships, one of which had a load of 100,000 porcelains. "Kraak-ware” comprised most of the cargoes in the late Wanli era (1573-1620). From the second half of the sixteenth century through 1640, it was mass-produced for export both within Asia and to Europe, and it immediately established Chinese porcelain in the European marketplace. Chinese porcelain was designed primarily for table usages, such as bowls, cups, and plates in conventional sizes, making it usable in Western culture.[32] The largely imported Chinese porcelain and other items into Europe had led to the 16th-17th century popular ‘Chinoiserie’, where Chinese and other East Asian cultural traditions are interpreted and imitated, particularly in the decorative arts, landscape design, architecture, literature, theatre, and music.

In Britain, classic blue-and-white ceramics were found by a small bunch of artists and intellectuals associated with the Aestheticism movement in the 1850s and 1960s, who valued "Art for Art's Sake." Influential Aesthetic artists began collecting Chinese blue-and-white paintings as part of their 'search for beauty.' Soon after, Britain developed a 'Chinamania,' a strong desire for the blue and white porcelains. The blue-and-white quickly became popular, not only among artists but also among a burgeoning middle class who bought it to demonstrate their aesthetic, exquisite taste.[33] Middle-class people believe blue and white porcelains were able to increase the aesthetic of their home, being able to taste the life of a privileged and lifting their social status at the same time.

Figure 7. Willem Kalf, Still-Life with a Nautilus Cup, oil on canvas, 79.4 x 67.3 cm, 1662 (Thyssen-Bornemisza Museum, Madrid)

Figure 8. Unknown Artist, Two ladies and an officer seated at tea, oil on canvas, 1715 (Victoria and Albert Museum, London)

Figure 9. Richard Collins, A Family of Three at Tea, oil on canvas, 1727 (Victoria and Albert Museum, London)

Figure 10. Mary Cassatt, Lady at the Tea Table, oil on canvas, 73.7 cm × 61 cm, 1883–85 (Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York) (Right)

In the field of painting, blue and white porcelains were so common that they began portrayed more often in European paintings, for instance as still-life, and instead, with the Gods, it was pictured with mortal human. The material of the blue and white porcelain was strong that it was enough to contain hot water, Europeans would often use them during their tea-times. Looking into the paintings of 1700s, Two Ladies and An Officer Seated at Tea (Fig. 8) and A Family of Three at Tea (Fig. 9), well-dressed and sophisticated individuals were seated at a tea table, clearly delighted of their up-to-date and fine silver and blue and white porcelain, along with their awareness of proper tea etiquette, individuals were tended to use valuable possessions to show their wealth and social status. In the 1800s, porcelains became ordinary and were depicted with common people (Fig. 10).

European paintings of the late 15th Century revealed how the royal courts of Italy have treated the exquisite rare blue and white porcelain to reflect their luxurious lifestyle. To increase their social status, they decided to depict themselves as the Gods in those classical paintings, showing off their power and how much they enjoyed this privilege. Interestingly, however, as time goes by, such divine porcelain soon became typical dining utensils, thanks to the vast trading in the past, now everyone can enjoy this so-call “privilege” life.

Footnotes: [1] Li, Z., Bower, V. and He, L., Chinese Ceramics: From the Palaeolithic Period Through the Qing Dynasty (Connecticut, Yale University Press, 2010) P. 369-370 [2] Robert Finlay, The Pilgrim Art: Cultures of Porcelain in World History (Berkeley, University Of California Press, 2010) P. 154 [3] Finlay, Pilgrim Art, P. 158 [4] Laurence Bergreen, Marco Polo: From Venice to Xanadu (London: Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group, 2007) P. 37 [5] Marco Polo, The Travels, translated by Ronald Latham (London: Penguin, 1958) P. 162 [6] Polo, Travels, P. 166-167 [7] Hugh Honour, Chinoiserie: The Vision of Cathay (London: John Murray, 1961) P. 34 [8] Polo, Travels, P. 238 [9] Art and Architecture of Islamic World (n.d.). Influence of Chinese Blue & White Porcelain on Islamic Ceramics. [online] Available at: https://arth27501sp2017.courses.bucknell.edu/influence-of-chinese-blue-white-porcelain-on-islamic-ceramics/ [Accessed 15 Dec. 2021]. [10] Jane Hwang Degenhardt, Cracking the Mysteries of "China": China(ware) in the Early Modern Imagination (North Carolina, University of North Carolina Press, 2013) P. 144 [11] John Mandeville, The Travels of Sir John Mandeville (London, Macmillan and Co., 1915) P. 141-142 [12] Mandeville, Travels, P. 139-140 [13] Percy G. Adams, Travel Literature Through the Ages: An Anthology (New York, Garland Publishing, 1988) P. 53 [14] Li, Z., Bower, V. and He, L., Chinese Ceramics, P. 558 [15] Robilant+Voena, RACE MATTERS (Robilant+Voena, 2020) https://www.robilantvoena.com/exhibitions/225/works/artworks3106/ [accessed 21 December 2021] [16] Leah R. Clark, ‘The Peregrinations of Porcelain’, Journal of the History of Collections, 32(2) (2019), P. 278 [17] Clark, ‘Peregrinations of Porcelain’, P. 277 [18] Clark, ‘Peregrinations of Porcelain’, P. 283 [19] Clark, ‘Peregrinations of Porcelain’, P. 284 [20] Clark, ‘Peregrinations of Porcelain’, P. 283 [21] Anthony Colantuono, ‘Dies Alcyoniae: The Invention of Bellini’s Feast of the Gods’,The Art Bulletin, 73(2) (1991), P. 241 - 242 [22] Colantuono, ‘Dies Alcyoniae’, P. 237 [23] Colantuono, ‘Dies Alcyoniae, P. 248 [24] Caroline Campbell, The National Gallery. (2018) Curator's introduction | Mantegna and Bellini. 1 October. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uUvhKwod1gQ&t=1896s (Accessed: 20 December 2021). [25] Caroline Campbell, The National Gallery. (2016) Giovanni Bellini: A pioneering Venetian artist. 12 February. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uUvhKwod1gQ&t=1896s (Accessed: 23 December 2021). [26] Rosamond E. Mack, Bazaar to Piazza: Islamic Trade and Italian Art,1300-1600 (Berkeley, University Of California Press, 2002) P. 105-106 [27] Clark, ‘Peregrinations of Porcelain’, P. 277-278 [28] Clark, ‘Peregrinations of Porcelain’, P. 277 [29] Regina Lee Blaszczyk, Porcelain for Everyone: The Chinaware Aesthetic in the Early Modern Era (n.d.) p. 5 [30] Edgar Wind, Bellini’s “Feast of The Gods”, A Study in Venetian Humanism, by Edgard Wind (Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 1948) P. 37-41 [31] Honour, Chinoiserie, P. 37 [32] Alice Cooney Frelinghuysen and Clare Le Corbeiller, Chinese Export Porcelain (New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2003) P. 8 [33] Victoria and Albert Museum. (n.d.). V&A · Chinese Blue-and-White Ceramics. [online] Available at: https://www.vam.ac.uk/articles/chinese-blue-and-white-ceramics. (Accessed: 29 December 2021).